Sexuality and male-male love in historical japan

- Episode 05- Transcript

Georgie Williams, voiceover: The following episode includes trigger warnings for the discussion of physical violence, murder, pederasty- which is sexual activity between adult men and underage boys, and eugenics. The presentation and discussion of these topics is not, and should not be presumed to be, an endorsement of any of these practices.

In 1687, during the Edo Period in Japan, a collection of short erotic stories were written and published by author Ihara Saikaku. An excerpt from one of these stories is as follows:

“Then the Lord cut off his left hand and asked, "How do you feel, Korin?"

Korin held out his right hand and said, "With this hand I caressed and loved my lover. You must hate this hand a good deal also."

The Lord at once cut that hand off. Then Korin turned his back to his master and said, "My back is very beautiful. No other page was as attractive as I am. Look at my beauty before I die." His voice was weak and low through the mortal pain he was enduring. Then the Lord cut off his head and, holding it in his hands, wept bitter tears for the death of his favourite.”

The title of this book of short stories was Nanshoku Ōkagami, or 'The Great Mirror of Male Love'- and Saikaku's writing is just a drop in the ocean of resources that honour and acknowledge the sexuality-variant history of Japanese communities over many centuries. As part two of our three part exploration of Japanese queer culture, join me as I share with you tales of gay monks, bisexual samurai and stories from the golden age of homosexual Japan. Welcome to Episode 5 of /Queer. You’re here with me, your host, Georgie Williams.

For this episode I am not interviewing any particular individuals due to various scheduling and logistical issues that arose during the planning of this episode- but I have conducted an extensive literature review and consulted with a Japanese academic in the field, Professor Naoya Maekawa. When researching this topic, I discovered that unfortunately, the vast majority of academics with publications pertaining to this subject are white American men. I queried this with Professor Yuka Kanno from Episode 4, who confirmed this, but provided me with Professor Maekawa’s contact details. Conscientious and sensitive storytelling, especially the telling of stories which are centralised around the topic of one particular culture, requires knowing which voices to offer a platform to, and which ones to not. I was not interested in platforming a non-western academic as the voice of authority on this subject and so, as Professor Maekawa was unavailable for a full interview, I have chosen to go without one. I acknowledge my own positionality as a white, Western researcher producing this episode and that is why I must stress that I am not an authority on this subject, and if you are interested in learning more, please refer to the articles I reference throughout this episode and the sources I credit at the end. Undoubtedly, my own perspective and my inability to directly read Japanese texts will have produced a lens through which I have conducted my research into this topic and formulated the narrative that I am sharing throughout this episode. I can relay the facts but my interpretation is both subjective and unique to my perspective as an outsider. Please bear this in mind as we proceed.

When we talk about bisexuality or homosexuality, we have to approach the application of this word similarly to how we approached the use of the word 'queer' in Episode 4. As Professor Naoya Maekawa warned me when I consulted with him for this episode, one had to be careful imposing modernity upon historical texts. Both bisexuality and homosexuality are terms which imply more than may be obvious at first- to many they imply some romantic interest in the sexual partner, although romantic attraction does not equate to sexual attraction, nor is one necessary for the other to exist. In the context of this episode, I will be using the terms in their most stripped back of definitions- homosexuality denoting sexual behaviour or interest between two parties of the same gender, and bisexuality denoting sexual behaviour or interest towards two or more genders by one individual. We must acknowledge that how homosexuality and bisexuality are expressed and presented in the contemporary west is not likely to mirror what same gender or multiple gender attraction looked like in 17th Century Japan. 

So to start this exploration, we have to go back to a time pre-dating what has been described as the "Golden Age of Homosexual Japan"- a period stretching from 1650 to 1750. Buddhism took root in Japan in the 7th century and, by the medieval period, there are estimated to have been over 90,000 Buddhist monasteries established across Japan. The Buddhist perspective on sex was that sexual acts were driven by desire and, as desire was something to be resisted and disregarded, monks were required to take a vow of celibacy. However, homosexual acts were not seen to be as sinful as heterosexual acts, if a lapse in self control were to occur. This is because of the belief that women were innately more sinful and morally corrupting than men. As Gary Leupp wrote in Male Colors, The Construction of Homosexuality in Tokugawa Japan, sexual behaviour between monks was largely excusable based on the fact that these were individuals expected to share close quarters with one another. This behaviour was more likely to be written off as a product of their environment. Dharmachari Jñanavira also wrote on this subject in Homosexuality in the Japanese Buddhist Tradition, and in their writing they refer to the experiences of Portuguese Jesuit missionaries who visited Japan in the late 16th Century. To quote Jñanavira, “Father Francis Cabral noted in a letter written in 1596 that "abominations of the flesh" and "vicious habits" were "regarded in Japan as quite honorable; men of standing entrust their sons to the bonzes to be instructed in such things, and at the same time to serve their lust". Another Jesuit commented that "this evil" was "so public" that the people "are neither depressed nor horrified" suggesting that same-sex love among the clergy was not considered remarkable.”

In the 12th Century in Japan, samurai had already become the ruling class and, as a community whose practices often differed from those of general Japanese society, one key component of samurai culture was the practice of nanshoku, a tradition practiced by Chinese Buddhist monks. To explain nanshoku, this was a pederastic practice- an older monk, known as a nenja, would take on an adolescent boy known as a chiga as his assistant. It was predominantly seen as a mentor-mentee dynamic, but sexual elements were often included. In fact, this sexual behaviour was supposedly seen as integral to cementing a more significant spiritual bond between the pair. This practice became more widespread throughout Japan as the power of the samurai class grew- and this was not a practice from which women were excluded, either. As male-male relationships of varying dynamics became established throughout Japan, known then as wakashudō, it was not uncommon or frowned upon for these men to also engage romantically or sexually with women. Historical records from this period through to the 1700s burst forth with love letters, poems and erotica, written by samurai for their partners of various genders. Wakashudō, being a samurai practice, became enviable amongst other less powerful social classes- and for those who could not procure a partner through conventional means, the next best option was to buy the company you so desired. A boom in sex work accompanied the beginning of the Golden Age of Homosexual Japan. As Patrick Carland wrote in Imagining a Home for Us: Representations of Queer Families in Contemporary Japanese Literature, "the rise of Kabuki theater in the Edo Period and the construction of red-light districts by the Tokugawa Shogunate to control and manage brothels and gambling led to a thriving male-male sex trade, particularly amongst the wealthy merchant classes. Amorous relationships between brothel workers and their patrons were celebrated in literature and the arts alike."

This feels like a good point at which to interject an suggest that, given what we have now learned about male-male relationships during what has been described as the Golden Age of Homosexual Japan, we should consider how western conceptions of sexual power dynamics may not explain how these relationships operated during the period. Professor Maekawa’s warning about imposing modernity, viewing these stories through the lens of modern experiences and a modern perspective, led me to dive deeper into this subject after learning about this history. It was the writing of Joshua Mostow in The Gender of Wakashu and The Grammar of Desire that provided the insight and perspective I needed to better understand the social context of these relationships. Mostow writes that the prefix of ‘homo’ in ‘homosexual’ is used to denote sameness and, in a contemporary western context, we consider that sameness to exist in the matching of genders. However, this term only effectively denotes ‘sameness’ if sexual and romantic pairings are established within a culture where gender is the predominant power dynamic at play. In Japan’s Edo period, one’s age was often a highly important factor in how the dynamic of a relationship was established, as well as social influence and authority. So calling a relationship between an older, highly influential man and a younger, less socially powerful man a homosexual relationship may allow for us to paint over the complexities of this pairing by presuming a ‘sameness’ between the two that was not culturally present in this location and time period. Mostow states that “equitable relationships in the [supposedly] ‘homosexual’ realm” were largely absent in 17th Century Japan, and that perhaps the term ‘pansexual’ would be more appropriate for describing men who took lovers of various genders, as gender identity appears to have not been a factor which was considered in the process of choosing their partners.

So how did this Japan, which was so inclusive of what we would consider to be queer behaviour, become the Japan we know today? It was in the 1870s that Japan ended its 'policy of national isolation' or Sakoku, after opening its ports to the outside world in 1853. The Meiji government wished to develop guidelines regarding how to form the new Japanese state and, drawing inspiration from Western countries such as Prussia, the government drew up their first anti-homosexuality laws. Initially, this took the form of an anti-sodomy law in 1872, which was then repealed and replaced by a more general law which criminalised "obscene acts". As the 20th Century arrived, Sexology took a hold in the country, influenced by the "research" of German and Austrian medical practitioners. As Sabine Frühstück writes in Colonizing Sex: Sexology and Social Control in Modern Japan, "self-appointed experts from the academic fields of zoology, biology and medicine, as well as from education and the arts,” “set out to push for the creation and popularization of sexual knowledge, the education of ‘the masses’ about ‘correct’ and ‘normal’ sexual behavior, and the establishment of sexology as a field of knowledge." With Western sexology posited as being "modern" and integral to the progressive ideal that the West was perceived to be, many European ideologies were absorbed by Japanese Sexology- in particular, the concept of eugenics. For those of you who are unfamiliar, eugenics is defined as "the science of improving a human population by controlled breeding to increase the occurrence of desirable heritable characteristics." What is deemed desirable, of course, is subjective to taste and human decency. Non-heterosexual behaviour became pathologised under this emerging sexological field, framed as a condition to be suffered instead of a valid and harmless aspect of one's identity. Harry Oosterhuis, writing on the subject of sexual modernity, stated that homosexuality was posited as the cause and the symptom of various physiological and psychological conditions. With this, many Japanese traditions surrounding sex and sexuality were denounced as uncivilised, emblematic of degenerative behaviour that modern Japan should strive to leave behind. 

The development and implementation of sexual conservatism in Japan is one of many examples that demonstrate how contemporary Western gendered and sexual practices are widespread not because they are emblematic of some innate truth about human behaviour, but because they are an export. In some scenarios, such as this one, western practices and beliefs are somewhat willingly adopted. In other situations, these norms and practices were a colonial export. To clarify, colonialism is defined as “the policy of a country seeking to extend or retain its authority over other people or territories. In the process of colonisation, colonisers may impose their religion, economics, and other cultural practices on indigenous peoples.” The British Empire, as it was known, was predominantly a product of colonialism. In acknowledging this, we can begin to understand the mechanisms through which Western ideas and ideals have spread around the globe- at times by force. As a consequence, the ideas and ideals that existed previously in that country or community are lost- not only to the people but to the history books. 

Western norms are not universal. They are not the standard around the world. They have indeed travelled across many parts of the globe, in places where they were and were not made welcome- but it is imperative that in understanding human cultures and practices, we acknowledge how our frame of reference for normal, or common, is just one of many around the world which are just as valid. The West does not have a monopoly on what can be deemed respectable and socially appropriate behaviour- far from it. Being conscientious global citizens requires a disavowal of social expectations which are, at their core, classist, racist and culturally oblivious. There was nothing fundamentally degenerative or shameful about the male-male relationships that took place during these periods of Japanese history, when they occurred between consenting adults- and in respecting and honouring these histories, one can carve a path of inclusivity and acceptance for the citizens of modern day Japan who have been penalised and ostracised for equally harmless aspects of their identities. Global history is not straight. It is not cisgender. These are histories we have been denied the opportunity to learn about and appreciate due to the imposition of shame and derision. We can choose, as individuals and collectively as societies, to ignore that imposition and make these histories known. In doing so, we can begin to reconstruct a global history that includes all of us, as we were- without censorship- and without shame. 

This episode of the /Queer Podcast was edited by Charles Makemson and scripted and produced by me, Georgie Williams. A very special thanks to Professor Yuka Kanno and Professor Naoya Maekawa for their contributions to the research behind this episode. Thanks also to Tofugu.com for their valuable resources, and to Ryoko Ward for assistance with translation. A reminder once again that transcripts are available for every episode of this podcast on the home page of /Queer, just below the media player. 

Thank you once again to my Patreon subscribers for their support throughout the Japan leg of the /Queer research trip- I am continually grateful for your assistance in making this podcast happen, and for your faith in this project. If you enjoy this podcast and wish to help ensure it’s continuation, it would be delightful to have you on board as part of the /Queer team. You can find the /Queer Patreon at patreon.com/slashqueer. That’s S-L-A-S-H Queer. The link is also available on our Facebook, Instagram and Twitter pages. Anything you can give makes a world of difference to independent creators and researchers such as myself.

This episode was recorded on location in Tokyo in Japan. Music in this episode was composed by Kevin MacLeod. If you enjoyed this episode or have any feedback, please get in touch on Instagram or Twitter at @SlashQueer or email us at slashqueer@outlook.com. As is our praxis, until next time stay kind, stay radical and stay queer.